Time-critical and other sensitive contracts may be drafted to limit the shield of this clause where a party does not take reasonable steps (or specific precautions) to prevent or limit the effects of the outside interference, either when they become likely or when they actually occur. A force majeure may work to excuse all or part of the obligations of one or both parties. For example, a strike might prevent timely delivery of goods, but not timely payment for the portion delivered.

如果一方当事人没有采取合理的步骤（或具体的预防措施）来防止或限制外部干扰的影响，无论是在外部干扰变得可能发生还是实际上发生时，都可以起草时间紧迫和其他敏感的合同来限制本条的保护。不可抗力可能导致一方或双方免除全部或部分义务。例如，罢工可能妨碍货物的及时交付，但无法及时支付交付部分的货款。

 

Because of the different interpretations of force majeure across legal systems, it is common for contracts to include specific definitions of force majeure, particularly at the international level. Some systems limit force majeure to an Act of God (such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.) but exclude human or technical failures (such as acts of war, terrorist activities, labor disputes, or interruption or failure of electricity or communications systems). The advisory point is in drafting of contract make distinction between act of God and other shape of force majeure.

由于各法律制度对不可抗力的解释不同，合同通常包括不可抗力的具体定义，特别是在国际一级。有些制度将不可抗力限制为act of God（天灾）（如洪水、地震、飓风等），但不包括人为或技术故障（如战争行为、恐怖活动、劳资纠纷或电力或通信系统中断或故障）。咨询要点是在起草合同时区分act of God和其他形式的不可抗力。

 

As a consequence, force majeure in areas prone to natural disaster requires a definition of the magnitude of the event for which force majeure could be considered as such in a contract. As an example, in a highly seismic area a technical definition of the amplitude of motion at the site could be established on the contract, based for example on probability of occurrence studies. This parameter or parameters can later be monitored at the construction site (with a commonly agreed procedure). An earthquake could be a small shaking or damaging event. The occurrence of an earthquake does not imply the occurrence of damage or disruption. For small and moderate events it is reasonable to establish requirements for the contract processes; for large events it is not always feasible or economical to do so. Concepts such as 'damaging earthquake' in force majeure clauses do not help to clarify disruption, especially in areas where there are no other reference structures or most structures are not seismically safe.

因此，在容易发生自然灾害的地区，不可抗力要求对事件的严重程度作出定义，在合同中可将不可抗力视为不可抗力。例如，在高地震区，可以根据合同确定现场运动幅度的技术定义，例如基于发生概率研究。随后可在施工现场对该参数或参数进行监测（采用共同商定的程序）。地震可能是一个小的震动或破坏性事件。地震的发生并不意味着破坏或破坏的发生。对于小型和中型活动，制定合同流程要求是合理的；对于大型活动，这样做并不总是可行或经济的。不可抗力条款中的“破坏性地震”等概念无助于阐明破坏，尤其是在没有其他参考结构或大多数结构不具有抗震安全性的地区

 

 

Common law普通法系

English common law does not automatically apply force majeure principles to contracts. Parties to English law contracts who wish to have force majeure relief must spell out what constitutes force majeure in the contract itself. Failure to do so means that a supervening event which prevents performance of the contract will not (and cannot) be caught as a force majeure event, so as to provide relief from performance – because it has not been named as a qualifying event in the contract.

英国普通法并不自动将不可抗力原则适用于合同。希望获得不可抗力救济的英国法合同当事人必须在合同中说明构成不可抗力的因素。未在合同中说明意味着妨碍合同履行的意外事件不会（也不能）被视为不可抗力事件（以减轻履约责任），因为合同中并未将其列为预选事件。

Common law recognizes the concept of frustration of purpose, a narrower concept that applies when the actual performance of the contract is radically different from what the parties intended. When force majeure has not been provided for in the contract (or the relevant event does not fall within the scope of the force majeure clause), and a supervening event prevents performance, it will be a breach of contract. The law of frustration will be the sole remaining course available to the party in default to end the contract. If the failure to perform the contract deprives the innocent party of substantially the whole benefit of the contract it will be a repudiatory breach, entitling the innocent party to terminate the contract and claim damages for that repudiatory breach.

普通法承认目的受挫概念，这是一个狭义的概念，适用于合同的实际履行与当事人的意图完全不同时。合同中未规定不可抗力（或相关事件不属于不可抗力条款的范围）时，如果一个意外事件妨碍了合同的履行，那就是违约。合同受挫法将是违约方终止合同的唯一剩余途径。如果不履行合同使无过错方实质上丧失了合同的全部利益，这将是一种根本性性违约，使无过错方有权终止合同并要求损害赔偿

 

As interpreted by English courts, the phrase force majeure has a more extensive meaning than “act of God” or vis major. Judges have agreed that strikes and breakdowns of machinery, which though normally not included in vis major, are included in force majeure. (However, in the case of machinery breakdown, negligent lack of maintenance may negate claims of force majeure, as maintenance or its lack is within the owner's sphere of control.)

根据英国法院的解释，“force majeure”一词的含义比“act of God”或“vis major”更为广泛。法官们一致认为，机械的罢工和故障，虽然通常不包括在 vis major中，但包括在force majeure中。（但是，在机器发生故障的情况下，由于疏忽而缺乏维护可能否认force majeure的索赔，因为维护或其缺乏属于所有者的控制范围。）

 

Civil law民法法系

France法国

For a defendant to invoke force majeure in French law, the event proposed as force majeure must pass three tests:

如果被告援引法国法律中的不可抗力，则作为不可抗力的事件必须具备以下三个要件：

 

1. Externality 外部性

The defendant must have nothing to do with the event's happening.

被告一定与事件的发生无关。

2. Unpredictability 不可预测性

If the event could be foreseen, the defendant is obligated to have prepared for it. Being unprepared for a foreseeable event leaves the defendant culpable. This standard is very strictly applied:

若事件是可以预见的，被告有义务做好准备。若对可预见的事件未做准备，则被告是有罪的本标准严格执行：

 

CE 9 April 1962, "Chais d’Armagnac": The Council of State adjudged that, since a flood had occurred 69 years before the one that caused the damage at issue, the latter flood was predictable.

Administrative Court of Grenoble, 19 June 1974, "Dame Bosvy": An avalanche was judged to be predictable since another had occurred around 50 years before.

若事件是可以预见的，被告有义务做好准备。本标准严格执行：

CE1962年4月9日，“Chais d'Armagnac”：国务委员会裁定，由于洪水发生在造成争议损害的69年前，后一次洪水是可以预见的。

格勒诺布尔行政法院，1974年6月19日，“博斯维夫人”：自大约50年前发生另一次雪崩以来，一次雪崩是可以预见的。

 

3. Irresistibility不可抗拒性

The consequences of the event must have been unpreventable.

这件事的后果一定是无法避免的。

Other events that are candidates for force majeure in French law are hurricanes and earthquakes. Force majeure is a defense against liability and is applicable throughout French law. Force majeure and cas fortuit are distinct notions in French Law.

在法国法律中，其他可能导致不可抗力的事件是飓风和地震。不可抗力是对责任的抗辩，适用于整个法国法律。不可抗力和意外事件在法国法律中是不同的概念。

 

Germany

On the other hand, German law does differentiate between vis major (höhere Gewalt) and casus fortuitus (Zufall) but, like English, tends to lump them together under höhere Gewalt which seems conceptually synonymous with the common law interpretation of force majeure, comprehending both natural disasters and events such as strikes, civil unrest, and war. However, even in the event of force majeure, liability persists in the face of default by a debtor.

德国

另一方面，德国法律确实区分了不可抗力（höhere Gewalt）和意外事件（Zufall），但像英语一样，倾向于把它们放在不可抗力（höhere Gewalt）之下，这似乎在概念上等同于普通法对force majeure的解释，包括自然灾害和罢工，内乱和战争等事件。然而，即使在不可抗力的情况下，债务人违约时，责任仍然存在。

 

知识拓展

民法法系（civil law system或civil law）又称为大陆法系、罗马一德意志法系、法典法系，它是指以古罗马法, 特别是以19世纪初《法国民法典》为传统产生和发展起来的法律的总称。其影响范围主要是在欧洲大陆国家，特别是法国和德国，其主要法律的表现形式均为法典。属于这一法系的除了欧洲大陆国家外，还有曾是法国、德国、葡萄牙、荷兰等国殖民地的国家及因其他原因受其影响的国家。

 

普通法系(common law system或common law )又称普通法法系、英国法系、判例法系、英美法系，它是指以英格兰中 世纪的普通法为基础和传统产生与发展起来的法律的总称。它主要渊源于英国普通法，以 判例法为法的主要表现形式。在现代它由英国法与美国法两大分支构成。这一法系的范围，除了英国(苏格兰外)以外，主要是曾为英国殖民地、附属国的许多国家和地区。