法律英语基础
Basics of Legal English
【Abstract】Legal English is the style ofEnglish used by lawyers and other legal professionals. The extensive use oflegal terms of art, legal jargons, words and phrases derived from Latin andFrench all makes it different form standard English and hard to understand forlayperson. The unusual features of Legal English have their roots in thehistory of the development of English as a legal language.
一、法律英语特点
(一)词法特征
1.大量外来词(法语、拉丁语)
inter alia,the same, the aforesaid, null and void, all and sundry,de facto, in re, alibi, bona fide, quasi, per se, ad hoc.
2.法律专业术语
legal terms of art:patent,share, royalty, bailment, abatement,termination,invoke, peremptory, a material breach(not a seriousbreach),burden of proof, cause of action, letterspatent, negotiable instrument, reasonable doubt, contributory negligence.
legal jargon:boilerplate clause,corporate veil, annul, bequeath, emoluments, provenance(should be replaced byplain language equivalents where possible)。
3.古英语与中古英语
hereinafter, herein, hereunder,thereto, whereby, wherein, whereof.
4.用词正式
prior(before),sequent/subsequent(after),advise/inform(tell),commence(start,begin),providedthat/in case/in the event of(if),employ(use),inaccordance with(according to),demonstrate(show), undertake/covenant(promise),furnish(provide),pertaining(relevant),contingent(possible).
5.常用词特殊意义
action,avoid, consideration, execute, prejudice, save, serve, said, minor, major, instrument.
6.少用形容词、程度副词
7.叠词使用
frequent use of doublets ortriplets:null and void/fit and proper/perform anddischarge/dispute, controversy and claim/ promise, agree and covenant/null andvoid/any and all/cease or desist/full and complete/save and except(the meaningof the two might be the same or different.)
8.代词的使用
the same, the said, theaforementioned (They are employed to modify nouns instead of replacing nouns.)
(二)句法特征
1.长句居多,句型结构复杂。
(单句独立成段现象很普遍。句子附加成分多,结构复杂但逻辑严密,表达周密、严谨、准确,符合法律语体要求。)
2.状语和条件句的大量使用
其目的是为了使条款明确清晰,排除一切可能产生的歧义和误解,严格界定各方的权利和义务。(作为“法律规范”核心的“法律规则”,其构成要素包括“假定条件”、“行为模式”、“法律后果”。这可以辅助理解状语和条件句大量使用的缘由。)
3.名词化结构的使用
使用名词来代替动词、形容词和长句,这样可以使法律语言简练、紧凑、准确。同时,名词化结构可以模糊、隐藏动作行为者,弱化法律行为主体,扩大法的适用范围,使法律条文更具包容性(all-inclusiveness)。如下例:
原文:禁止抢采掠青、毁坏母树(《种子法》第24条)。
译文:Plundering ofunripe seeds and doing damage to other trees are prohibited.
5.少用人称代词
合同等法律文件中代词一般用间接代词,如Party A, Party B,a third Party,each Party以表示对各方一视同仁。在商务合同中很少出现人称代词(避免混淆和误解),而且即使出现了人称代词通常都是泛指。合同等法律文件的起草人经常用the said或the same以及theaforementioned加上一个名词(必须加名词,不单独使用)来指代前文中提到的名词。
6.多用被动结构
类似上面提到的“名词化结构”,被动结构功能是隐藏和弱化法律主体,扩大法律适用范围,并使法律语言客观公正。
7.语序奇特
例如:the provisions for termination hereinafterappearing.(possibly influenced by French.)
(三)语体特征
1.准确性及精确性(Accuracy and Precision)
After is different from on and after
2.一致性及同一性(Consistency and Identity)
exactness often demands repeating thesame term to express the same idea.
3.清晰及简练(Clarityand Concision)
See reference material.
4.专业化(Professionalism)
Legalese Force majeure cannot be replaced by force beyond human power.
5.语言规范化(StandardizedLanguage)
Dialect, slang,idiom must be avoided.
另外,由于法律英语不能做到数学语言的精准,其对权利义务通常不能具体量化,模糊语言的使用非常普遍。具体比如英文合同中常见的due diligence, reasonable care, best effort, as promptly aspossible, sound performance等等。
二、法律英语的历史发展
1.1066年—1356年:法语是诉讼官方语言(officiallanguage of legal proceedings),其影响体现在一些外来词汇和法律文件复杂的语言结构;此阶段,拉丁语是书面正式法律语言(the language of formal records and statues);
French:
Words:Property, estate, chattel, lease,executor, tenant
General linguistic register: complex linguistic structures in legalwriting
Latin:
Words:ad hoc(专门、特别), de facto(实际上的), bona fides(善意), inter alia(特别), and ultra vires(越权)
2.1356年以后:1356年《诉讼法》(the Statute of Pleading)要求诉讼语言是英语,拉丁语是书面正式法律语言且进一步强化。在某些法律领域,法语使用一直延续到17世纪。
Latin:
Words:adjacent, frustrate, inferior, legal,quiet, subscribe, shall
(deliberately to adopt wordsderived from Latin to make their text appear more sophisticated.to use Latinword order, which led to an ornate style, deliberately used to impress ratherthan inform.)
3.英语作为书面法律语言的使用:15世纪开始,遗嘱开始以英文书写;成文法十四世纪以前一直以拉丁语书写,1485年以前一直以法语书写,之后英语和法语并行过一段时间,1489开始单独以英文书写。
总结:英语现在“诉讼领域”替代法语(节点一:1356),然后在“书面领域”替代拉丁语(节点二:1489),最后实现英语大一统。
三、常用的制式法律语言列举
(一) 常用制式词汇短语
1.“here+介词”,“there+介词”,“where+介词”
2.subject to,notwithstanding, without prejudice to
3.to the extent: if and tothe extent……(当且仅当) where and to the extent……(多接从句)
3.the same
4.to that/the/such effect (大意/内容是…)
5.in/at one’s discretion (自由决定,自由裁量)
6.as of
7.inter alia (拉丁语 among other things)
8.in witness of (以资为证,以资证明)
8.叠词:null and void, anyand all, cease or desist, full and complete, save and except, force and effect,perform and discharge, represent andwarrant, true and correct, undertake and agree, unless and until.
9.include without limitation,include but not limited/restricted to…
10.in accordance with,comply with, in conformity with
11.in respect of, inconnection with, in regard of, with regard to
12.on/upon occurrence of
13.on the request of
14.for the behalf of, onbehalf of
15.in default of
16.on the grounds of
17.insofar as
18.in the nature of
19.for one’s account
20.be liable for
21.in one’s discretion
22.
(二)重要概念表达
1.“履行合同”
To perform/ fulfill/implement/ execute/ (一方与双方)
perform的法律含义是:to do what oneparty is obliged to do by a contract; fulfill的法律含义是:to do everything which is promised in a contract。
2.“遵守”(合同、法律)
Observe, follow, obey, abideby, comply with, conform to,
comply with,表示to act inaccordance with a provision, rule, demand ,
observe和abide by时,其主语应该是合同的当事人,
3.“解除合同、终止合同、中止合同” (revoke, terminate, suspend)
4.“义务”(obligation & liability)
5.“提供”的多重用法;provide则表示to give sb sth free of charge, supply则不太明确,一般来说需要给。
6.“属于”的多重用法(belong to , possess, own)
7.关于“由于”(due to, owing to,in view of, because of considering, in consideration)的用法
8.“有权”
to have the right 或 keep the right,但该句选用reserve the right to do sth.
9.“要求”(require)
10.“转让”
assign/assignment是法律英语,表示to transferproperty rights to sb in accordance with laws,而transfer/transference仅表示to hand over the possessionof property, etc.
11.“许可,允许” (grant, allow)
grant在国际商务合同,尤其在许可证合同中表示许可方toallow the licensee to…,而allow仅表示to say that someone can do sth。
12.“选择” (choice)
13.“佣金” (commission)
14.“法律法规”的表达
①law:legal document setting forth rules governing aparticular kind of activity.通称,可指一部法律法规,亦可指一个部门法(集体名词),其中包括:具体法律(act)和条例(regulation),既包括制定法,也包括判例法,通常不用于法律的正式名称。
②Act:a written ordinance of Congress, or another legislativebody.
不包含判例法,一般指立法机构通过的具体法律,如英澳Environmental Protection Act。
③Code:a group of statues relating to a particular subjectmatter and arranged in classified order….
Civil Code民法典 Criminal/PenalCode刑法典
大陆法系(英美法系)Codelaw/civil law, case law/common law
④Statute:a written law passed by a legislativebody.
Statue book? Statue oflimitations? Statutory construction? Statutory law? 法规全书,诉讼时效,立法解释,成文法
⑤Bill:a proposition or statement reduced to writing.
通常意义,是不是真正法律?半成品。
通常指立法机构通过之前的法案或议案,但有时可指颁布的成文法,如Bill of Rights。
⑥ Regulation或Rule:rules and administrativecodes issued by government agencies at all levies, municipal, county, state,and federal.
指行政部门颁布的解释和实施法律的条例、规章、规则,例如:Treasury Regulations:是美国财政部国内收入署颁布的具体解释《国内税收法典》(Internal Revenue Code)的税收条例。
⑦Legislation:指具有立法权的机关或人所制定的法律,指一部法律或几部法律的集合体,不用于法律命名。
⑧Ordinance:是市政立法机关通过的条例。
⑨Executive order:是美国总统及其下属机构发出的行政命令。
⑩Policy:政策。Guidance/guideline:指引、指南。
15.英文合同中几个主要情态动词(“应当”)用法以及区别
Shall:使用频率最高,语气最重,表示权利或义务,“应当”“必须”;否定形式shall not(不得、禁止)
Will :有时用,力度比shall弱
Should:不用于“应该”之意,仅用于“如果”之意
May:“可以”(法律),“可能”(合同),仅仅修饰权利;否定may not(不得、禁止),语气不及shallnot强烈。
Must:不一定具有法律约束力,不用否定形式。(有新趋向,CISG用35个)
16.“规定”的表达:provide, set forth, stipulate, prescribe
(1) provide 通常指法律、法令、合同等的规定;
(2) stipulate 通常指条例、法规之规定;
(3) set forth 一般指协议中所述的或者协议确定的;
(4) prescribe 泛指法律规定(to do as thelaws prescribe依法办事)或具体指令
17.“合同金额”的表达(大小写)
一是:小写后接大写重写;
二是:货币单位准确无误;
三是:大写要求顶格,单词之间疏密均匀,大写文字前加上“SAY”,意为“大写”;在最后加上“ONLY”。意思为“整”。
18.违约赔偿: indemnity、remedy与damage
Indemnify: to give securityagainst future loss,to compensate another for loss or damage that has already occurred
Remedy: A means of legalreparation
Damages: Money paid to aperson who has been injured by the action of another person.(damage 与 damages单复数有区别)
为便于理解,indemnity、remedy及damage可以译为“担保赔偿条款”“赔偿方法”及“损害赔偿”。
总结:indemnity主要是一方担保他方免于受到第三人主张之损害,兼有预定损害赔偿范围意味,remedy指违约赔偿的方法,damage(s)则是最常见的违约赔偿方法(损害赔偿金)。
19.英文合同中的人称代词
合同中代词一般用间接代词,如Party A,Party B,a third Party,each Party,以表示对各方一视同仁。The first party(甲方),the second party(乙方);the purchaser(买方),the supplier(卖方);thesending party(派出方),thereceiving party(接受方);thelicensor(出让方),the licensee(受让方);the recipient(受方),the supplying party(供方);the transferor(转让方),thetransferee(受让方)。
(三)易混淆词汇
1.“discharge”
2.“leave”
3.“instrument”
4.“operation”“discount”“freight” “interest” “case”
5.关于 “pledge, mortgage” 的用法
6.change A to B与 change A into B (改变为 /折合成)
7.ex与 per,by
8.in与 after
9. on/upon与 after
10.by与 before
11.Principal place ofbusiness (principal office), domicile, business premise, registered office
12.Chapter, article,section, clause, paragraph, subparagraph
13.Perform, fulfill,execute, implement
14.Abide by, observe, obey,comply with, conform to (主语)
15.Counterpart, copy,duplicate, original (副本vs.正本)
in duplicate (一式二份) ,in triplicate(一式三份), in quadruplicate一式in quintuplicate(一式五),in sextuplicate 一式六,in septuplicate一式七份in octuplicate 一式八份,in nonuplicate 一式九份,in decuplicate 一式十份
16. Incur :No costs incurred inthe manufacture, sale, distribution or exploitation of the articles shall bededucted from any royalty payable by Licensee.
17.encumbrance, mortgage, charge, pledge, security, lien, securityencumbrance: A liability or claim which burdens property, e.g., a lease,mortgage, easement, restrictive covenant, rent charge…指在财产上设定的债务或债权,如租赁、抵押、地役、限制性契约,收租。试译为他物权。charge: …An encumbrance, e.g., on land, which secures payments formoney…(Idem) 一种担保物权,如:土地上设定的用于付款的担保,保证。
18.Do sth. in its entirety
The Aggregate RevolvingCommitment (and the Revolving Commitment of each Bank) shall terminate in itsentirety on April 15, 1998
19.Seek recourse to, resortto
20.Pertinent和relevant
21.Sanction, approval,examination
22.Have the right to do, beentitled to, may do, reserve the right to do, be (duly) authorized to do, havethe authority to do, do sth at one’s option or/and discretion, be liberty to do
23.have the legal obligationto do, be obliged/obligated to, shall do, be under the obligation ,to do,be liable/responsibleto do, be liable/responsible
24.Undersigned
The undersigned Seller andBuyer have agreed to close the following transaction in accordance with theterms and conditions stipulated as follows:
25.Witnesseth, Whereas, NowTherefore, Now these presents witness, Know all men by these presents,In witness Whereof,In Testimony Whereof, Undersigned. Witnesseth, Whereas, Now Therefore前言,In witness Whereof合同结尾证明部分
In Testimony Whereof: in WitnessWhereof.以此为证,特立此证。
Now these presents witness : 兹特立约为据, 本句话也是用于WHEREAS条款之后引出具体协议事项。
Know all men by these presents:根据本文件,特此宣布(通常用于前言部分)
26.“reference”的多重用法
27.“cover”的多重用法
(文章来源:事务法律英语公众号)